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By admin, 2010/03/13 09:25

Pneumonia can be an extremely serious condition. In the very old, the very young, or people with compromised immune systems, it can be deadly. In an otherwise healthy person pneumonia is less serious, but it still requires that you take special care of yourself to avoid the possible complications that can arise from lack of treatment.

After a diet of raw juices, when the fever subsides, the patient should spend three or four further days on an exclusive fresh fruit diet, taking three meals a day of juicy fruits such as apple, grapes, pineapple, mango, orange, lemon and papaya. Thereafter, he may gradually adopt a well-balanced diet of natural food consisting of seeds, nuts and grains, vegetables and fruits, with emphasis on fresh fruits and raw vegetables.

Turmeric – Take a thick cloth and make four folds of it. Between the third and fourth fold, spread a layer of turmeric. Now mix this turmeric in lukewarm water and sprinkle over the cloth to make it partially wet. Now put this cloth on the chest of the patient, heat a brick and put it over the chest of the patient to stimulate his chest, when the heat from the brick reaches the chest, it would nullify the pneumonia effect. Also take 1 gm of black pepper, five cloves and 1 gm of edible soda. Boil it in 15 ml of water.

Sesame seeds are of great value in the treatment of Pneumonia. In 250 ml water, put 15 gm of sesame seeds. Add 1 tbsp of linseed, a pinch of common salt and a dessertspoon of honey in it. Consume this mixture everyday. It will aid in removing phlegm from the bronchial tubes.

A good healthy all round diet is required to maintain an overall feeling of wellness. It is also advisable to cease tobacco smoking or reduce your contact with it to keep the lungs clean and more able to fight off infection. Also try to avoid as best you can very humid or dusty atmospheres. As particles gathered from such conditions get into the organs very easily and clog up the passageways.

Pneumonia treatment using Parsnip Juice (Mooli)

The juice of parsnip, a root vegetable botanically known as Pastinaca sativa, has been found beneficial in the treatment of pneumonia. The juice of the leaves and root of this plant possess high therapeutic value. The phosphorus and chlorine elements contained therein are of particular benefit to the lungs and the bronchial system, thus making the juice an excellent home remedy for pneumonia. The patient should take 250 ml of juice daily. It is however, essential that only the juice of the cultivated parsnip plant should be used for this purpose.

Brown Rice Cream

Used in cases when a person in a weakened condition needs to be nourished and energized or when the digestive system is impaired. Dry-roast brown rice evenly until all the grains turn a yellowish color. To one part rice, add a small amount of sea salt and 3–6 parts water, then pressure cook for at least 2 hours. Squeeze out the creamy part of the cooked rice gruel through a sanitized cheesecloth. Eat with a small volume of condiment, such as umeboshi plum, gomasio (sesame salt), tekka, kelp, or other seaweed powder.

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By admin, 2010/03/13 07:57

The drugs in this group are used for overcoming diarrhea due to infection. These include furazolidone, sulfonamides, and antibiotics.

Furazolidone (Furoxone)

This drug has been found to be effective in controlling diarrhoea due to a large variety of micro-organisms. An important feature is that micro-organisms do not develop resistance to this drug. It is a valuable agent in the treatment of gastro-enteritis and infections which are resistant to sulfadiazine, tetracycline or chloramphenicol. It is also available in combination with metronidazole – an antiamoebic drug. The usual adult oral dose is 100 mg, four times a day. Children require 5 to 10 mg/kg body weight in 3 to 4 divided doses (Furoxone 25 mg/ml)

Adverse Effects: Adverse effects of this drug are minimal. It may cause nausea, vomiting, headache, and in rare cases, allergic reaction in the form of skin rashes.

Precautions

The drug should not be taken on an empty stomach.

If severe nausea or vomiting are experienced, doses should be reduced or drug withdrawn.

The drug should be stopped if symptoms of allergic reaction occur.

Neomycin, Colistin Sulfate (Walamycin)

Neomycin is an antibiotic found to be of special value in the treatment of diarrhea in infants because of its local action. It is usually given in combination with other non-specific anti­diarrhoea drugs.

Ampicillin (Ampicillin Campicillin)

Nowadays ampicillin is a drug of choice in the treatment of bacillary dysentery

Norfloxacin (Norflox, Uroflox)

It is a fluoroquinolone which is effective against microbes causing diarrhoea and urinary infection. Usual dose is 400 mg twice a day. Manufacturers forbid its use in children. Unfortunately a large number of preparations contain pediatric syrups/dispersable tablets which have been used. This drug can cause cartilage damage. Adverse effects are nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness, dry mouth, loss of sleep and convulsions. Its use should be restricted.

Drugs Used in Severe Diarrhea

In severe types of dirrhea and in diarrhoea associated with vomiting, immediate attention is necessary. Besides the use of powerful drugs, fluid and electrolyte balance should be corrected to avoid dehydration. Dehydration is characterized by hot and dry skin over the abdomen, dry tongue and lips, sunken eyeballs, and shock. In such cases, fluids should be infused through an intravenous drip and anti-spasmodics and antibiotics should be given.

A number of drugs are available for the treatment and shown in table below:

Drugs Used in Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome (IRS) is a common functional disorder of intestines. A patient with IBS has complaints such as abdominal pain, constipation or diarrhea. Investigation reveal normal structures. Many patients are treated unnecessarily with antiamoebic and antibacterial drugs.

Treatment depends on the nature of complaints. Many patients improve with eating more fibres (Isabgol husk may be added). In others, fibre rich diet increases gaseousness and bloating.

Two types of drugs are useful in this disorder:

Those who have loose stools can benefit from diphenoxylate or loperamide. Antidepressants

and diazepam also helps.

Those who have constipation require drugs like cisapride, mosapride and tegaserod. Tegaserod (TEGIBS 2 mg, 6 mg cap) is a new drug available in India. It is used in IBS when constipation is the main complaint (spastic colon).

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By admin, 2010/03/13 07:56

Dehydration (hypohydration) is the removal of water (hydro in ancient Greek) from an object. In Physiologic terms, it entails a relative deficiency of water molecules in relation to other dissolved solutes. Dehydration, thus, is slightly different from hypovolemia, which defines water deficiency only in terms of overall volume rather than in terms of solute concentrations.

Dehydration is loss of important blood salts like potassium (K ) and sodium (Na ). Vital organs like the kidneys, brain, and heart can’t function without a certain minimum of water and salt. In underdeveloped countries, dehydration from diseases like cholera and dysentery kills millions every year (usually infants and children).

Causes

The usual causes of dehydration are diarrhoea and vomiting. Dehydration can also occur if one does not eat or drink much during an illness or if one does not drink enough during or after strenuous exercise. Medications that control excess body fluid (diuretics) by causing fluid loss are a common long-term cause.

Symptoms And Signs of Dehydration

A reliable clue to indicate dehydration is a rapid drop in weight. This loss may equal several pounds in a few days (or at times hours). A rapid drop of over 10% (fifteen pounds in a person weighing 150 pounds) is considered severe. Symptoms may be difficult to distinguish from those of the original illness, but in general, the following signs are suggestive of dehydration; increasing thirst, dry mouth, weakness or lightheadedness (particularly if worsening on standing), darkening of the urine, or a decrease in urination.

Preventing Dehydration

Water is one of the most important nutrients in our body. It makes up approximately 70 percent of our muscles, and about 75 percent of our brains. We use water as well as expend it. In fact just in everyday breathing we lose about two cups of water. Other ways that we lose body water is through sweating and urinating. If we fail to replenish these losses, we set ourselves up to become dehydrated.

Treatment

It is best to re-hydrate yourself, whether it is from creek, stream or lake. Your survival might depend on it. When you are then found and get back to a location where you can be treated, the healthcare professionals can treat your symptoms at that point in time. For example, Giardia Lambia, which is the very common organism that causes diarrhea, the incubation for Giardia is approximately 3 weeks. You will be found most likely in less time than that, and you are not going to suffer any symptoms until you get back. So, hydration is key. Please drink the water if you are in a situation that warrants that.

Unless your doctor advises otherwise, use an oral rehydration solution such as Pedialyte for infants and children who have diarrhea, vomiting or fever. These solutions contain water and salts in specific proportions to replenish both fluids and electrolytes. They also contain glucose or another carbohydrate such as rice powder to enhance absorption in the intestinal tract. Oral rehydration products are readily available in most drugstores, and many pharmacies carry their own brands. Begin giving fluids early in the course of an illness instead of waiting until the situation becomes urgent.

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By admin, 2010/03/13 07:55

The heart is a unique organ in our body. It pumps blood to all parts of body untiringly and continuously. Do you know how the heart gets its energy? Not from the blood in its cavities but from special blood vessels which penetrate into its muscles and are called coronary arteries. As it beats regularly it has to repair the wear and tear while in action! Another peculiarity is that coronary arteries are more prone to narrowing and blockage by atherosclerosis, a process of deposition of fatty material which gets, hardened gradually. The resulting occlusion impairs the blood supply to heart muscle, a condition called ischaemia (thirst amongst plenty!). When occlusion is complete ischaemic necrosis (cell death) results and a clinical entity called acute myocardial infarction (heart attack) occurs. A condition in-between these two is called \’intermediate syndrome\’.

Depending on the extent of occlusion there may be chest pain on working and exertion (stable or exertional angina pectoris) which gets relieved on rest, or increasingly severe chest pain on minimal exertion (unstable angina) or prolonged chest pain with sweating and marked ECG changes (acute myocardial infarction). Occasionally, a person may be without chest pain and only on routine angiography, narrowing is detected. In rare cases sudden death may be the first (and last!) manifestation of the disease called coronary artery disease (CAD) or ischaemic heart disease (IHD).

In one form of angina pectoris (IHD) the patient experiences heaviness, pressure, tightness, or a squeezing type of pain in the chest lasting for a few minutes, and is relieved by nitroglycerin table placed under tongue. In the second form, the chest pain which is of an extremely severe squeezing or crushing type, often lasting for long periods, and associated with nausea, vomiting, giddiness, and sweating may be due to myocardial infarction. Although the pain in the chest and dificiency of oxygen supply are features common to both conditions, the pain in angina pectoris appears to be due to the narrowing or loss of elasticity in the coronary arteries, whereas in myocardial infarction, there is obstruction of the blood supply to segment of heart muscle, leading to necrosis. Due to these differences, the treatment of these two conditions varies considerably and will be discussed

separately.

A heart attack, characterized by a severe pain in the chest, is due to sudden cutting off of the oxygen supply to the heart muscle. Heart failure leads to impaired pumping capacity of the heart, which may or may not be related to lack of oxygen supply.

Causes of Coronary Artery Disease (Ischaemic Heart Disease): Atherosclerosis is the most common cause. It starts at an early age and progresses with age. For this reason the incidence of heart attacks is greater during the 50s or later years. There are various factors which may enhance the process of atherosclerosis, such as a fatty and high caloric diet, lack of physical activity, obesity, cigarette smoking and diabetes.

A study on Japanese immigrants in the US found that the incidence of heart attack among them was significantly higher than those living in Japan, indicating that the change in food habits – eating plenty of rich foods – was the main cause of higher incidence. A similar survey was done on Indians who had migrated to Singapore. It was found that the incidence was eight times more than those who stayed behind. The reasons were the same. It is, therefore, very necessary for patients of heart attack to exercise control over diet and eat food which is low in fat and calories. Cigarette smoking has also been linked to increase

incidence of heart attacks. Smoking should be forbidden for a heart patient unless it is feared that abstaining is likely to cause dangerous psychological disturbances. In such cases the patient is generally advised to cut down smoking as far as possible. The high cholesterol content in the blood can also lead to heart attack. There are two kinds of cholesterol: low density cholesterol (LDL-C) is bad, while high density cholesterol (HDL-C) is good. If the ratio of LDL vs HDL is higher than normal, the chances of a heart attack are more.

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By admin, 2010/03/13 07:08

During the evolution process the human being evolved from a four-legged to a two legged being. We have to pay a price of it. The entire weight of our body now rests on two legs instead off our and the knees take the weight of the whole body and are more strained. Exercise keep joints lubricated for their mobility. However, nowadays there is hardly any time to do the exercises. The physical activities have reduced and one feels lazy to go for morning walk specially after a late night on the previous day. A few decades ago there were only a few cars and one had to walk a distance to fulfil his daily needs. There were no lifts or escalators. Drive-in restaurants, cinemas, cable and satellite channels were non-existent. There was enough physical activity to keep the joints moving.

We are also paying a price of our changed life style. The Indian style toilets made us to sit in squatting position gave enough exercise to our knees. Our mother cooked the food on wood fire sitting on the ground and we circled around to eat. This made our joints more flexible. Now every one looks for more and more of comforts and do not make the joints exercise. For joints there is a famous saying, \’use it or loose it\’.

Arthritis

Disorders related to inflammation of the joints are called arthritis. Most people suffering from arthrits have one of the two forms of arthritis – osteoarhtritis or rheumatoid arthritis. Osteoarthritis, also called \’degenerative arthritis or degenerative joint disease, is essentially a area joint failure and may affect any joint in the body. There is pain and immobility of the affected area. Something there is swelling, redness, and a rise in temperature of the affected part due to inflammation. Rheumatoid arthritis, unlike osteoarthritis is not associated with wear and tear of use or with injury. It is an autoimnune disorder in which, the body\’s immune system attacks itself. In addition to osteoarthritis and arthritis there are other form of arthritis including, tennis elbow,

bursitis, frozen shoulder, ankle sprain, spondylitis, lumago, gout etc.

Treatment

The cause of most of these disorders is not known and usually, symptomatic treatment consisting of conventional pain relievers and anti-inflammatory drugs is given. In some cases the disorder may be due to faulty posture. This can be treated by correcting posture and Physiotherapy. If it is due to an infective illness like tuberculosis, gonorrhoea, rheumatic fever, an intensive therapy is necessary. Various combinations of drugs are available. These will be discussed towards the end of this chapter. Conventional pain relievers have already been discussed. Here we shall discuss their sailent features in relation to arthritis.

Pain-Relieving Anti-Inflammatory Drugs

As the name suggests, these drugs relieve pain by reducing inflammation. These are commonly called NSAIDs (Non-Steroid Anti-Inflammatory Drugs). In arthritis, inflammation causes pain which is relieved by these drugs. Though underlying cause of inflammation is not removed these drugs provide relief by reducing pain and swelling, and increasing mobility of the joint.

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By admin, 2010/03/13 07:07

Drugs

An attack of migraine may last for several hours and varies in severity. In some, attack is mild and required simple pain relievers. In others it is severe and disabling and therefore needs to be treated with specific anti-migraine drugs.

The drugs for treatment of migraine are of two types: 1) those used for relief in an acute attack; 2) those used for prevention of future attacks.

Drugs Used in Acute Attack

Ergotamine Tartrate (Ergophen, Vasograin)

Ergotamine is the drug of choice in the treatment of an acute attack. It causes constriction of blood vessels of the head which are dilated during an attack. It is most effective if taken before the attack starts, that is, when prodromal symptoms appear. It should not be used for long- term prophylaxis (preventive treatment) because of its potential adverse effects.

Dosage: The dosage of ergotamine should be individualized to determine an appropriate amount for subsequent attacks. In Western countries it is given by inhalation which has a more rapid effect than the oral route. It is generally used in a dose 2 mg at the onset of attack, followed by 1 mg every hour until the headache is relieved, or a total dosage of 6 mg has been reached. In some people who have severe nausea or vomiting due to migraine it can be given by inhalation or as rectal suppository or by intramuscular injection (best avoided). It is available in combination with belladona dry extract, caffeine, and paracetamol (Migranil), or with cyclizine and caffeine (Migril).

Adverse Effects: Ergotamine may produce nausea, vomiting, abdominal discomfort, diarrhoea, increased thirst, and drowsiness. More serious adverse reactions include weakness, pain or cramps in leg and neck muscles, chest distress or pain, an increase or decrease in heart rate. In sensitive individuals it may cause localized swelling and itching. In rare cases,

prolonged use may result in decaying of the fingers and toes (gangrene) due to constriction of blood vessels.

Precautions

If ergotamine has been taken for a prolonged period of time, it should be discontinued gradually to avoid rebound headaches due to vasodilation.

It is contraindicated in patients with peripheral vascular disease (Raynaud\’s or Burger\’s disease), and marked atherosclerosis.

It should not be taken by patients with high blood pressure and anginal pain of IHO.

It should be avoided in cases of peptic ulcer, kidney or liver disease, and infection.

In pregnant women it may cause abortion by stimulating the uterus.

It should be used cautiously in children. A pain-relieving product without ergotamine may be preferred.

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By admin, 2010/03/13 07:06

You may have witnessed a typical roadside scene where a person has suddenly fallen down and people have gathered around him, saying that he has had an attack of mirgi (the Hindi name for epilepsy). Epilepsy is characterized by fits with loss or disturbance of consciousness, leading to an inability to maintain posture. There may be other symptoms like increased muscle tone causing a \’locked jaw\’, followed by decreased muscle tone, frothing at the mouth, and the eyeballs moving upwards followed by convulsive movements of the arms or legs. An attack of epilepsy may occur at any time and it is usually difficult to predict its onset. However, epilepsy attacks in which some patients get a warning signal or aura in the form of flashes of light or sounds is called major epilepsy (or grand mal epilepsy or generalised tonic-clonic seizures). Other forms are absence seizures (minor epilepsy or petit mal epilepsy); atonic seizures (akinetic unconsciousness with muscle relaxation resulting in fall); myclonic epilepsy (shock like intermittent muscular contractions) and infantile spasms (seen in infants).

Myoclonic epilepsy is characterized by jerky movements of some body parts alongwith tonic-clonic movements. Drugs like sodium valproate or clonazepam are found to be useful in the treatment of this form of epilepsy. Lamotrogine and topiramate are other durgs found to be useful.

Atonic epilepsy (seizures) is a variant of petit mal epilepsy in children. There is a history of repeated falls due to sudden loss of muscle tone. It is treated by drugs used in petit mal epilepsy.

Infantile spasms begins from infancy. There are brief jerking movements of whole body as a result there is spasm of whole body. It is associated with mental retardation. The treatment is unsatisfactory with drugs. Sodium valproate, clonazepam corticosteroids and are found to be effective in some cases.

Causes: The exact cause of primary epilepsy is not known. It has been suggested that some localized areas of the brain become hyperexcitable either due to changes in its vascular supply or other unknown reasons. Various factors such as changes in the blood gases, decrease in blood sugar and calcium, stress and strain, may precipitate an attack of epilepsy too. Seizures maybe due to brain infection, metabolic disturbances, toxic effect of drugs, withdrawal after longer use of alcohol and tranquilizers, eclampsia or brain tumors. Head-injury is another common cause.

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By admin, 2010/03/13 06:04

Tricyclic Group

Imipramine (Depsonil), Amitriptyline (Sarotena), Trimipramine (Surmontil), Clomipramine (Clofranil), Amoxapine, (Demolox) Doxepin (Spectra).

Tricyclic antidepressants are commonly used in the treatment of mental depression. The exact mechanism of action is not known. Of all tricyclics, imipramine has been most extensively used. These drugs raise the spirits or improve the mood of depressed patient but do not have an effect in a normal person as is the case with stimulants. In fact, in a normal person these may cause drowsiness, fatigue, and uneasiness. The onset of the antidepressant action of these drugs is very slow, and it usually take 2 to 3 weeks, although the side-effect appear much earlier. It is during this period that the patient needs reassurance. These agents are ineffective in controlling violent symptoms which are sometimes associated with mental depression. In such cases the phenothiazines can be used simultaneously to overcome these symptoms. If the patient also has insomnia, amitriptyline, or trimipramine, which cause some sedation may be helpful. Imipramine is also useful in preventing bedwetting by children. For this reason, it is given at bedtime.

Dosage: The tricyclic antidepressants are given orally in small doses initially for a week or so, and then gradually increased. The smaller doses help in minimizing the adverse effects which generally disappear in due course of time, and the larger doses can then be continued without much discomfort. The doses of imipramime, amitriptyline, and trimipramine are nearly the same. These are usually given in a dose of 50 to 100 mg during the first week and then gradually Increased upto 300 mg. The dose can be further increased or decreased, depending upon the response of the patient.

Adverse Effects: Imipramine and the drugs of this group cause dryness of the mouth, constipation (which may be very severe at times), thirst, difficulty in passing urine, visual disturbances, and palpitation. Clinically, these adverse effects can be minimized by

reducing the doses or changing from one drug to another. In rare cases, skin rashes, neutritis, and fits may occur.

Precautions

These drugs should be administered only to an established patient of mental depression. Once the treatment starts, it must be continued for at least a few months.

If the patient gets excited and agitated, a phenothiazine tranquillizer should be given.

These drugs should not be given to a patient receiving monoamine oxidase inhibitors (such as nialamide), as their interaction may cause high fever, depression of respiration, and marked excitement. A gap of at least two weeks should be allowed before switching from one group of drugs to another.

The action of sedatives like phenobarbitone, meprobamate, diazepam, alcohol is enhanced, and may lead to a dangerous depression of the central nervous system.

These drugs block the blood pressure lowering effect of guanethidine and some other drugs used in hypertension or high blood pressure.

Drugs like phenothiazines or thyroid preparation enhance the action of tricyclic antidepressants; their doses must, therefore, be regulated.

Pregnant and lactating mothers should avoid these drugs as they may cause interference with the development of the foetus.

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By admin, 2010/03/13 06:03

The heart pumps blood, which supplies nourishment to all parts of the body, including itself. During each contraction, the heart pumps out a certain amount of blood but under certain circumstances, such as in severe anaemia, chronic infection of lungs, overactivity of the thyroid gland, rheumatic or bacterial heart disease, disease of heart muscles, after a larger myocardial infarction (heart attack) and high blood pressure, its pumping capacity gets decreased. This condition is called heart failure or congestive heart failure. Heart failure does not mean stoppage of the heart as is generally believed. The decreased output of the blood leads to back pressure of blood, causing enlargement of the heart and engorgement of the veins. Due to this back pressure, some amount of fluid and sodium ions pass out of the capillaries and collect in the tissues, causing swelling or edema. There is also congestion of blood in the lungs, leading to difficulty in breathing and inducesing cough. There is a decrease in the working capacity and even walking may be difficult. An X-ray of chest, electrocardiogram and echocardiogram (ultrasonic examination of heart) usually reveals the cause of congestive heart failure (CHF).

Treatment and Drugs

The treatment of heart failure includes general measures and drug treatment.

Bedrest: The patient must take adequate bedrest, for 10 to 15 days. The rest decreases the work of the heart and helps in early recovery.

Diet: In congestive heart failure there is collection of fluid with sodium in extracellular

tissues. The intake of sodium chloride in the diet should be drastically reduced to 2 to 3 g per day.

Drugs: The aim of drug treatment is to increase the power of contraction of the heart muscle, control sodium and water retention, and decrease the workload on the heart and improve heart performance.

Drugs which can contribute to the CHF such as verapamil, pain relievers, steroid hormones, propanolol should be stopped.

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By admin, 2010/03/13 06:02

Mental illness is one of the most complicated disorders about which very little is known. No one likes to be labelled as mentally sick. In India, mental illness is a stigma, and the relatives of usually try to keep the patient isolated. Few patients are subjected to medical treatment. In some cases, it is considered that the illness has resulted from am evil spirit having taken posession of the body, and to get rid of it, prayers are offered.

Recent findings have shown that there are definite biochemical aberrations in the brain which cause mental illness. There are several drugs have been introduced which can effectively control the symptoms in most cases. These drugs allow a patient to live a fairly normal life and also prevent further deterioration of mental state.

Types of Mental Disorders: Depending on the symptoms, mental disorders have been broadly divided into three groups: major mental illnesses (psychosis, schizophrenia, mania); mini mental illness (neurosis, anxiety reaction); and mental depression (affective disorder). Each kind of disease requires a specific type of treatment. Therefore, it is important to recognize the disease. However, in some cases the patient has symptoms of more than one type of disease and such patients pose a different type of problem to the physician. In this chapter we shall consider the drugs used for the treatment of major mental illnesses. The drugs used in the treatment of anxiety reaction and mental depression are described in separate chapters.

Several terms such as psychosis, schizophrenia (literally \’split mind\’) and mania have been used for major mental illnesses. In general, a major mental illness is characterized by such mental symptoms which cannot be reconciled with. The patient may have violent and uncontrollable instances of destructive behaviour; or he may suffer from illusion which is a false perception of reality: for example, a rope lying on the floor may appear to be a crawling snake; or delusion; which is a false sense of interpretation: for example, he may feel that he is a rich person and people around him are trying to conspire to cheat him and

drive him to poverty; or hallucination; which is a false perception not accounted for by any external stimulus: for example, a person may imagine he is sitting in a garden full of trees and flowers with a kaleidoscopic play of colours, or walking around a lake, or that he can hear melodious music when none of these really exists. Such symptoms have been reported to be cause by psychomimetic drugs, hallucinogens like LSD, mescaline, and cannabis (bhang, charas or ganja), which have been widely abused by the younger generation. There is a disorganised thinking and abnormal behaviour. The most important negative manifestations include, flattening of emotions, poor verbalization, little interest in surroundings and relationships.

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